Difference between revisions of "Mandarin Chinese"
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'''Mandarin Chinese''' ([[Wikipedia:Mandarin Chinese]]) is a Sino-Tibetan language ([[Wikipedia:Sino-Tibetan languages]]). Although currently there is no stable language pair involving Mandarin Chinese (see [[list of language pairs]]), there is [http://wiki.apertium.org/wiki/Mandarin_Chinese#In_Apertium some linguistic data in Apertium]. |
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'Chinese' is a broad term consisting of hundreds of local language varieties (dialects), including Hokkien, Gan, Hakka, Cantonese, etc. '''Mandarin Chinese''' in this case refers to the most commonly spoken form of Chinese that is the sole official language of China and Taiwan. It is also known as Putonghua or Standard Chinese ([[Wikipedia:Standard Chinese]]). Speakers of Chinese are estimated to be more than 1 billion (the highest total number of speakers in the world!). |
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'''Mandarin Chinese''' ([[Wikipedia:Mandarin Chinese]]) is a Sino-Tibetan language([[Wikipedia:Sino-Tibetan languages]]). Currently there is no stable language pair in [[Apertium]] involving Mandarin Chinese (see [[list of language pairs]]). |
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In the Machine Translation context, one does not need to be too concerned with the various dialects, as their lexicon is mostly similar; differing mainly in phonology, tonal and spoken idiolects, and rarely, grammar usage. Furthermore, by specifying that Standard 'Putonghua' Chinese is the main focus of translation, any hassle with regard to Chinese dialects can be done away with entirely. However, what is significant about the Chinese language are the differences between "Traditional" and "Simplified" Chinese; the characters are different for 'Traditional' (used in Taiwan and Hong Kong) and 'Simplified' (used in Mainland China, Singapore, and Malaysia). Many online machine translators are able to convert between these characters easily. |
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== In Apertium == |
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=== Morphological transducer & disambiguator === |
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* [https://svn.code.sf.net/p/apertium/svn/languages/apertium-zho/ apertium-zho] |
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=== Language pairs === |
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'''Incubator''' |
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* [https://svn.code.sf.net/p/apertium/svn/incubator/apertium-zh_CN-zh_TW/ apertium-zh_CN-zh_TW] |
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* [https://svn.code.sf.net/p/apertium/svn/incubator/apertium-zho-spa/ apertium-zho-spa] |
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== Resources == |
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===General=== |
===General=== |
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* Nordhoff, Sebastian; Hammarström, Harald; Forkel, Robert; Haspelmath, Martin, eds. (2013). [http://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/mand1415 "Mandarin Chinese".] Glottolog. Leipzig: Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology. |
* Nordhoff, Sebastian; Hammarström, Harald; Forkel, Robert; Haspelmath, Martin, eds. (2013). ''[http://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/mand1415 "Mandarin Chinese".]'' Glottolog. Leipzig: Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology. |
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* Norman, Jerry. (1988). ''Chinese'', Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-29653-3. |
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* —— (1991), [http://sino-platonic.org/complete/spp029_chinese_dialect.pdf "What Is a Chinese "Dialect/Topolect"? Reflections on Some Key Sino-English Linguistic terms"], Sino-Platonic Papers 29: 1–31 |
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* Packard, Jerome Lee. (1998). ''New Approaches to Chinese Word Formation: Morphology, Phonology and the Lexicon in Modern and Ancient Chinese.'' New York: Mouton de Gruyter. |
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* Norman, Jerry (1988), Chinese, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-29653-3. |
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* Ramsey, S. Robert (1987) |
* Ramsey, S. Robert. (1987). ''The Languages of China'', Princeton University Press, ISBN 978-0-691-01468-5. |
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* Wurm, Stephen Adolphe; Li, Rong; Baumann, Theo; Lee, Mei W. (1987) |
* Wurm, Stephen Adolphe; Li, Rong; Baumann, Theo; Lee, Mei W. (1987). ''Language Atlas of China'', Longman, ISBN 978-962-359-085-3. |
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* Yan, Margaret Mian (2006) |
* Yan, Margaret Mian. (2006). ''Introduction to Chinese Dialectology'', LINCOM Europa, ISBN 978-3-89586-629-6. |
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* —— (1991). [http://sino-platonic.org/complete/spp029_chinese_dialect.pdf "What Is a Chinese "Dialect/Topolect"? Reflections on Some Key Sino-English Linguistic terms"], Sino-Platonic Papers 29: 1–31. |
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* Yue, Anne O. (2003), "Chinese dialects: grammar", in Thurgood, Graham; LaPolla, Randy J. (eds.), The Sino-Tibetan languages, Routledge, pp. 84–125, ISBN 978-0-7007-1129-1. |
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* [http://sun.sino.uni-heidelberg.de/igcs/iglang.htm China WWW VL - Internet Guide for China Studies: Language] |
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* [http://www.chinasona.com/bamboo/chinese.html Chinese Language Related Information Page] Carlos McEvilly's '''extensive''' set of language and linguistics resources |
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* [http://pears.lib.ohio-state.edu/China/linguist.html Chinese Linguistics] Ohio State University |
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* [http://www.mandarintools.com/ Chinese Tools] |
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* [http://www.chinasona.com/bamboo/linguist.html Scholarly and Linguistic Resources on Chinese] |
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===Machine translation=== |
===Machine translation=== |
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* [http://corpus.leeds.ac.uk/query-zh.html A Collection of Chinese Corpora and Frequency Lists.] |
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*[http://www.freelang.net/online/aromanian.php] FREELANG Aromanian-English and English-Aromanian online dictionary |
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* [http://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english-chinese-traditional/ Cambridge Advanced Learner's Dictionary, English-Chinese (traditional)] |
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*[http://www.freelang.net/dictionary/aromanian.php] FREELANG software dictionary for Windows |
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* [http://www.mandarintools.com/cedict.html CEDICT (Chinese-English Dictionary) Project] |
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* [http://lingua.mtsu.edu/chinese-computing/statistics/ Chinese Character Frequency Lists and Diagrams.] |
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* [http://www.cernet.edu.cn/ China Education and Research Network (CERNET)] |
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* [http://rocling.iis.sinica.edu.tw/ Chinese Information Processing Laboratory] |
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* [http://heather.cs.ucdavis.edu/~matloff/chinese.html Chinese Software Website] N. Matloff |
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* [http://www.mandarintools.com/annotate.html Chinese Tools Annotator] |
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* [http://sourceforge.net/projects/libtabe/ Libtabe (SourceForge)] |
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* [http://www.mdbg.net/chindict/chindict.php MDBG English to Chinese dictionary] |
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* [http://www.chinese-dictionary.org/ Multilingual Chinese Dictionary] |
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* [http://cali.arizona.edu/ U. of Arizona Computer Aided Language Instruction (UACALI) Group] |
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===Grammars=== |
===Grammars=== |
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* Chao, Yuen Ren. (1968). ''A Grammar of Spoken Chinese.'' Berkeley: University of California Press, ISBN: 0-520-00219-9. {ALEX PL1137.S6C5 1968} |
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* Claudia Ross and Jing-heng Sheng Ma. (2006). ''Modern Mandarin Chinese Grammar.'' New York: Routledge. |
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* Iancu Ianachieschi- Vlahu Gramatica simplã shi practicã, Crushuva 1993, 1997. |
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* He, Wayne W., Dela Jiao and Christopher M. Livaccari. (2010). ''Structures of Mandarin Chinese for Speakers of English I.'' Peking University Press, Paper. ISBN: 978-7-301-17971-0. |
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* BARA, Mariana, "Limba armãneascã. vocabular și stil", Editura Cartea Universitară, București, 2007, 204 p.; ISBN 978-973-731-551-9. (Aromanian language. Vocabulary and style) |
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* Huang, C. -T. James, Y. -H. Audrey Li, and Yafei Li. (2009). ''The Syntax of Chinese.'' Cambridge University Press, ISBN: 0521590582. |
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* CARAGIU-MARIOTEANU, Matilda; Saramandu, Nicolae, ''Manual de aromână'', Editura Academiei Române, București, 2005 (Aromanian manual) |
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* Kratochvil, P. ''The Chinese Language Today.'' {ALEX PL1087.K7} |
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* [http://www.farsarotul.org/nl23_3.htm CUNIA, Tiberiu, ''On the Standardisation of the Aromanian System of Writing. The Bituli-Macedonia Symposium of August 1997''] |
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* Li, Charles N. & Sandra A. Thompson. (1981). ''Mandarin Chinese: A Functional Reference Grammar.'' Berkeley: University of California Press, ISBN: 0-520-04286-7. {ALEX PL1107.L5} |
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* SALA, Marius (coordonator), ''Enciclopedia limbilor romanice'', E. Ș. E., București, 1989. |
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* Li Dejin and Cheng Meizhen. (2009). ''A Practical Chinese Grammar for Foreigners. Revised Edition.'' Beijing Language and Culture University Press, Paper. ISBN: 978-7-561-92163-0. |
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* Lu, Fubo. (1996). ''卢福波著. 《对外汉语教学实用语法》''. Beijing Languages and Culture University Press, Paper. ISBN 978-7-5619-0474-9. |
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* Yip Po-Ching and Don Rimmington. (1997). ''Chinese: An Essential Grammar.'' New York: Routledge. {Paul Robeson (Camden) PL1107.Y57 1996} |
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* Yue, Anne O. (2003). ''Chinese dialects: grammar'', in Thurgood, Graham; LaPolla, Randy J. (eds.), The Sino-Tibetan languages, Routledge, pp. 84–125, ISBN 978-0-7007-1129-1. |
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* [http://www.rci.rutgers.edu/~rsimmon/chi325syl.htm ADVANCED CHINESE GRAMMAR] |
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* [http://resources.allsetlearning.com/chinese/grammar/ Chinese Grammar Wiki] All Set Learning |
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* [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_grammar Chinese Grammar (Wikipedia)] |
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===Morphology=== |
===Morphology=== |
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* Dai, John Xiangling. (1992). ''Chinese morphology and its interface with the syntax.'' Doctoral dissertation, Ohio State University, Columbus. |
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* CARAGIU-MARIOTEANU Matilda, “Fono-morfologie aromână : studiu de dialectologie structurală” București : Editura Academiei RSR, 1968. |
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* Duanmu, San. (1998). ''“Wordhood in Chinese”. New approaches to Chinese word formation: Morphology, phonology and the lexicon in modern and ancient Chinese''. |
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* JANURA P. “Sufixe nominale të perbashta në gjuhët romune (aromune) dhe shqipe : disa krahasime me sufixet e gjuhëve të balkanike” in Je, no 1-2 (1969) P. 108-129 : no 3 (1969) P. 87-105. Tirana. |
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* Feng, Shengli. (1998). ''Prosodic structure and compound words in classical Chinese. In New approaches to Chinese word formation: morphology, phonology and the lexicon in modern and ancient Chinese''. |
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* BARA, Mariana, ''Le lexique latin hérité en aroumain dans une perspective romane'', LincomEuropa Verlag, München, 2004, 231 p.; ISBN 3-89586-980-5. |
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* Lu, Zhi-wei. (1965). ''Hànyǔ de goùcí fǎ (Chinese morphology)''. Peking: Kēxué Publishing Co. |
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* BARA, Mariana; KAHL, Thede; SOBOLEV, Andrej N., ''Južnoaromynskij govor sela Turia: Krania Grevenon, Pind. Etnolingvistika, Leksika, Sintaksa, Teksty'' (Graiul aromân de sud din satul Turia: Krania Grebene, Pind. Etnolingvistică, lexic, sintaxă, texte), Marburg, Sankt-Peterburg, 2005, ISBN 3-932331-59-1. |
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* Matthews, Peter Hugoe. (1991). ''Morphology''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. |
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* Packard, Jerome Lee. (2000). ''[http://www-personal.umich.edu/~duanmu/RevPackard02.pdf The Morphology of Chinese: A Linguistic and Cognitive Approach.]'' Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. |
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* Tang, Ting-chi. (1989). ''Hànyǔ cífǎ jùfǎ lùjí (Studies on Chinese morphology and syntax)''. Taipei: Taiwan Xīnxuéshēng Book Co. |
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* Zhu, Jia-ning. (1999). ''Hànyǔ cíhuì xué (Chinese morphology)''. Taipei: Wǔnán Túshū Publishing Co. |
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* [http://nccur.lib.nccu.edu.tw/bitstream/140.119/67361/1/42547.pdf Chinese Morphology: An Exploratory Study of Second Language Learners’ Acquisition of Compounds] National Chengchi University, Taiwan |
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* [http://www.101languages.net/chinese/morphology.html Morphology Chinese 101] 101 Languages |
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===Dictionaries=== |
===Dictionaries=== |
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;Monolingual |
;Monolingual |
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* [http://dict.revised.moe.edu.tw/index.html 教育部重編國語辭典修訂本 (Dictionary of Mandarin from Ministry of Education, R.O.C.)] All rights reserved |
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* [http://www.hudong.com/wiki/%E3%80%8A%E5%85%A8%E7%90%83%E5%8D%8E%E8%AF%AD%E8%AF%8D%E5%85%B8%E3%80%8B 《全球华语词典》 (Global Chinese Dictionary)] |
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* [http://www.hudong.com/wiki/%E3%80%8A%E5%85%A8%E7%90%83%E5%8D%8E%E8%AF%AD%E8%AF%8D%E5%85%B8%E3%80%8B 《全球华语词典》 (Global Chinese Dictionary)] All rights reserved |
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* [http://www.zdic.net/ 漢典 (Handian Dictionary)] |
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* [http:// |
* [http://www.zdic.net/ 漢典 (Handian Dictionary)] All rights reserved |
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;Multilingual |
;Multilingual |
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* Lin, Y. (1972). ''Lin Yutang's Chinese-English Dictionary of Modern Usage'', The Chinese University of Hong Kong. |
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* Simon, W. (1975). ''A Beginners' Chinese-English Dictionary Of The National Language (Gwoyeu): Fourth Revised Edition'', Lund Humphries, (London). |
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* Prof. Emil Vrabie "An English-Aromanian Dictionary" |
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* [http://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english-chinese-traditional/ Cambridge Advanced Learner's Dictionary, English-Chinese (traditional)] All rights reserved |
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* Aromanian - English Dictionary: http://www.jargot.com/dict/armaneasca/ |
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* [http://www.mandarintools.com/cedict.html CEDICT (Chinese-English Dictionary) Project] © 2015 MDBG |
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* Aromanian - English and English - Aromanian : http://www.freelang.net/online/aromanian.php |
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* [http://hua.umf.maine.edu/China/database.html Chinese-English Database] © Marilyn Shea 1996, 1999, 2002, 2006 |
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* PAPAHAGI Tache, “Dicționarul dialectului aromân, general și etimologic = Dictionnaire aroumain (macédo-roumain)” București : Ed. Academiei RPR, 1963 [2e éd. 1974] |
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* [http://www.tigernt.com/dict.shtml English-Chinese Online Dictionary] TigerNT '''license unknown''' |
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* "The Little Prince" by Antoine de Saint-Exupéry in Aromanian. Njiclu amirārush. Translated by Maria Bara and Thede Kahl, ISBN 978-3-937467-37-5. |
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* [http://www. |
* [http://www.mdbg.net/chindict/chindict.php MDBG English to Chinese dictionary] © 2015 MDBG |
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* [http://www.chinese-dictionary.org/ Multilingual Chinese Dictionary] All Rights Reserved © 2005 - 2014 |
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;Wordlists |
;Wordlists |
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* [https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Appendix:Mandarin_Swadesh_list Mandarin Swadesh list] (Wiktionary, Mandarin--English) CC-BY-SA |
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* [http://www.primaryschoolchinese.com/Mandarin_Chinese_Common_Entrance_Level_1_and_2_word_and_character_list.pdf Simple core word list] COMMON ENTRANCE EXAMINATION at 11+ and 13+ MANDARIN CHINESE © Independent Schools Examinations Board |
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* [http://www.chinese-tools.com/chinese/vocabulary The most frequently used words with pinyin and english definition.] All Rights Reserved © 2005 - 2014 |
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* [http://vocabulary-online.com Vocabularies for 150 languages] (Flashcard learning) |
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* [http://vocabulary-online.com Vocabularies for 150 languages] (Flashcard learning) All rights reserved. |
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* [http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Appendix:Aromanian_Swadesh_list Aromanian Swadesh list] (Wiktionary, Aromanian--English) |
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* [http://www.eric.ed.gov/PDFS/ED372602.pdf Raw list of translations from English to Aromanian] |
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===Miscellaneous=== |
===Miscellaneous=== |
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* Bradley, David. (1992). "Chinese as a pluricentric language". In Clyne, Michael G. ''Pluricentric Languages: Differing Norms in Different Nations''. Walter de Gruyter. pp. 305–324. ISBN 978-3-11-012855-0. |
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* Chao, Yuen-ren. (1948). ''Mandarin Primer''. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. |
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* FRIEDMAN, Victor A., The Vlah Minority in Macedonia: Language, Identity, Dialectology, and Standardisation, Selected Papers in Slavic, Balkan, and Balkan Studies, ed. Juhani Nuoluoto, Martii Leiwo, Jussi Halla-aho, Slavica Helsingiensa, 21. Universitatea din Helsinki, 2001 |
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* Chen, Ping. (1999). ''Modern Chinese: History and sociolinguistics'', New York: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-64572-0. |
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* DAHMEN Wolfgang, KRAMER B, KRAMER Johannes, ROLSHOVEN J, “ Dialektologsche Forschungen bei den Aromunen “ |
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* Chen, Yeh-ning, Shu-mei Wang, and Tsui-yin Lu. (2001). ''Practical Audio-Visual Chinese.'' Taipei: Zhèngzhūng Book Co. |
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* Tiberius Cunia. 1999. [http://www.farsarotul.org/nl23_3.htm On the strandardisation of the aromanian system of writing] |
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* Coblin, W. South. (2000). ''"A brief history of Mandarin"'', Journal of the American Oriental Society 120 (4): 537–552, JSTOR [https://www.jstor.org/stable/606615 606615]. |
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* CARAGIU-MARIOTEANU Matilda, “La romanité sud-danubienne : l’aroumain et le mégléno-roumain” in La Linguistique, vol. 8, fasc. 1 (Paris : 1972). P. 105-122. |
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* Duanmu, San. (1999). ''Stress and the development of disyllabic vocabulary in Chinese.'' Diachronica XVI: 1.1-35. |
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* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aromanian_language Aromanian language] (Wikipedia, English) |
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* Duanmu, San. (2007). ''The phonology of standard Chinese (2nd ed.)'', Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-921579-9. |
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* [http://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limba_arom%C3%A2n%C4%83 Limba aromană] (Wikipedia, Romanian) |
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* Escure, Geneviève. (1997). ''Creole and dialect continua: standard acquisition processes in Belize and China (PRC)'', John Benjamins, ISBN 978-90-272-5240-1. |
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* Kahl, Thede - "Istoria aromânilor", Editura Tritonic, București, 2006; |
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* Hsia, T. (1956). ''China's Language Reforms'', Far Eastern Publications, Yale University, (New Haven). |
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* V. Papacostea - "Aromanian Documents" (1860 - 1870); |
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* Kaske, Elisabeth. (2008). ''The politics of language in Chinese education'', 1895–1919, BRILL, ISBN 978-90-04-16367-6. |
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* CANDREA I.A. “Texte meglenite” in Grai si suflet, no 1 (Bucuresti : 1929). P. 100-127. |
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* Kratochvil, Paul. (1968). ''The Chinese Language Today: Features of an Emerging Standard.'' London: Hutchinson. |
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* CAPIDAN Theodor, “Meglenoromânii” Bucuresti : Academia româna, 1925 ; 1928 (Studii si cercetari ; 7). 3 vol. [1 : Istoria si graiul lor ; 2 : Literatura populara la meglenoromâni ; 3 : Dictionar meglenoromân.] |
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* Kurpaska, Maria. (2010). ''Chinese Language(s): A Look Through the Prism of "The Great Dictionary of Modern Chinese Dialects"'', Walter de Gruyter, ISBN 978-3-11-021914-2. |
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* CARAGIANI Gheorghe, “Intorno alla publicazione della Bibliografia macedoromena” in Balkan Archiv, neue Folge no 11, Hamburg : 1986. P. 247-278. |
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* Lehmann, W.P. (ed.). (1975). ''Language & Linguistics in the People's Republic of China'', University of Texas Press, (Austin). |
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* CARAGIANI Gheorghe, “La soubordinazione circonstanziale ipotattica nella frase del dialetto aromeno (macedo-romeno)” Napoli : Istituto universitario orientale, 1982. |
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* Milsky, C., (January–March 1973). ''"New Developments in Language Reform"'', The China Quarterly, No.53, pp. 98–133. |
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* CARAGIANI Gheorghe, “Gli aromeni e la questione aromena nei documenti dell’archivo storico diplomatico del Ministerio degli affari esteri italiano” in Storia contemporanea, no 5 (Roma : 1987) ; no 4 (1990). P. 928-1007 ; 633-662. |
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* Pollock, Jean-Yves. (1989). ''Verb movement, Universal Grammar, and the structure of IP.'' Linguistic Inquiry 20:365-424. |
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* DASKALESCU C. “ Scrisori din teara tintereasca si poesii noue [caractere chirilice]” Iasi : 1847. |
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* Qiu, Xigui. (2000). ''Chinese Writing'', trans. Gilbert Louis Mattos and Jerry Norman, Society for the Study of Early China and Institute of East Asian Studies, University of California, Berkeley, ISBN 978-1-55729-071-7. |
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* DIMA Nicholas 1978 “Romanian minorities in South-East Europe” in Buletinul bibliotecii române, vol. VI, serie noua, Freiburg i Br. : Rumänisches Forschungsinstitut, 1978. P. 337-366. |
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* Schuessler, Axel. (2007). ''ABC Etymological Dictionary of Old Chinese'', Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, ISBN 978-0-8248-2975-9. |
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* NOULAS Vassilis (Hrsg.), “Aromounische Hirtenerzählungen aus dem Pindusgebirge : von Nereiden, Moiren, Dämonen, Drachen, Toten und Träume gesammelt” Zürich : Verlag Madliger-Schwab, 1981 |
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* Selkirk, Elisabeth. (1982). ''The syntax of words.'' Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press. |
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* POGHIRC Cicerone. 1990 “Romanisation linguistique et culturelle dans les Balkans : survivances et évolution “ in Les Aroumains, Paris : Publications Langues’O, 1989 (Cahiers du Centre d’étude des civilisations d’Europe centrale et du Sud-Est ; 8). P. 9-45 |
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* Seybolt, P.J. & Chiang, G.K. (eds.). (1979). ''Language Reform in China: Documents and Commentary'', M.E. Sharpe, (White Plains), ISBN 978-0-87332-081-8. |
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*[http://www.armanami.org/ Aromanian Language website] |
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* Zhang, Bennan; Yang, Robin R. (2004). "''Putonghua'' education and language policy in postcolonial Hong Kong", in Zhou, Minglang (ed.), ''Language policy in the People's Republic of China: theory and practice since 1949'', Kluwer Academic Publishers, pp. 143–161, ISBN 978-1-4020-8038-8. |
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*[http://www.vlach.gr Στα Βλάχικα - In Vlach: A website about the Vlach language in Greece] |
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* [http://portal.cohass.ntu.edu.sg/ICSTLL45/ 45th International Conference on Sino-Tibetan Languages and Linguistics] (ICSTLL-45). Nanyang Technological University, Singapore. |
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*[http://www.ethnologue.org/show_language.asp?code=rup Ethnologue entry for Aromanian] |
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* [https://www.americanorientalsociety.org/ American Oriental Society] |
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*[http://www.vlachs.gr Asterios Koukoudis: Studies on the Vlachs] |
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* [http://people.cohums.ohio-state.edu/chan9/g-bib.htm Chinese Language and Gender On-line Bibliography] |
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*[http://www.greekhelsinki.gr/bhr/english/special_issues/aromanians.html Greek Helsinki Human Rights Organisation: Aromanians (Vlachs) in Greece] |
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* [http://www.chinalanguage.com/ Chinese Language website] |
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*[http://www.verbix.com/documents/romanian.htm Conjugation of verbs in Aromanian and Istro-Romanian] |
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* [http://ctext.org/ Classical Chinese texts] Chinese Text Project |
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*[http://www.ling.ohio-state.edu/~bjoseph/publications/1999roma.pdf Romanian and the Balkans, with some references to Aromanian] |
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* [http://newton.uor.edu/Departments%26Programs/AsianStudiesDept/index.html East Asia and Southeast Asia: An Annotated Directory of Internet Resources.] |
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*[http://www.CTArm.org Consiliul A Tinirlor Armanj - CTARM , webpage about Youth Aromanians and their projects] |
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* [http://www. |
* [http://www.chineselinguistics.eu/ European Association of Chinese Linguistics ] |
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* [http://www. |
* [http://www.iacling.org/ International Association of Chinese Linguistics] |
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* [http://www.cuhk.edu.hk/journal/jcl/ Journal of Chinese Linguistics] |
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* [http://clta-us.org/jclta.htm Journal of the Chinese Language Teachers Association] |
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* [http://www.economist.com/blogs/johnson/2013/06/language-borrowing Language borrowing Why so little Chinese in English?] The Economist. June 6, 2013. |
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* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mySwTPoFAhE Mandarin Chinese children's story in simplified Chinese showing the stroke order for every character] |
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* [http://chinalinks.osu.edu/ Marjorie Chan's ChinaLinks] at the Ohio State University with hundreds of links to Chinese related web pages |
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* [http://naccl.osu.edu/ North American Conference on Chinese Linguistics] |
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* [https://naccl.osu.edu/naccl-20/proceedings Proceedings of the 20th North American Conference on Chinese Linguistics (NACCL-20).] |
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* [http://stedt.berkeley.edu/ Sino-Tibetan Etymological Dictionary and Thesaurus (STEDT) Project] |
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* [https://chinese.yabla.com/ The Authentic Way to Study Mandarin Chinese] |
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* [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_Chinese Standard Chinese] (Wikipedia, English) |
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* [https://zh-classical.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%AE%98%E8%A9%B1 官話] (Wikipedia, Classical Chinese) |
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* [https://zh.wikipedia.org/zh-sg/%E5%AE%98%E8%AF%9D 华语] (Wikipedia, Simplified Chinese) |
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* [http://www.wcla.org.tw/ World Chinese Language Association] |
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===Corpora=== |
===Corpora=== |
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* [http://corpus.leeds.ac.uk/query-zh.html A Collection of Chinese Corpora and Frequency Lists.] Use with permission. |
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* [ftp://ftp.ccu.edu.tw/pub/chinese/data/pd-phrases.b5.gz Chinese Community Information Center Corpora] FTP .gz '''license unknown''' |
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* [ftp://ftp.ccu.edu.tw/pub/chinese/data/phrases.dat Chinese Community Information Center Phrases] FTP .dat '''license unknown''' |
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* [http://starling.rinet.ru/cgi-bin/query.cgi?flags=eygtnn&basename=%5Cdata%5Cchina%5Cbigchina&recode=yes&hiero=gif Chinese Database] Copyright 1998-2003 by S. Starostin |
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* [http://rocling.iis.sinica.edu.tw/ Chinese Information Processing Laboratory] (Chinese) All rights reserved |
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* [http://bd8.com/chinese/cihui/ Chinese Wordlist] '''license unknown''' |
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* [http://corpus.ling.sinica.edu.tw/ Corpus linguistics] Academia Sinica (Taiwan's top university) '''license unknown''' |
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* [http://lingua.mtsu.edu/chinese-computing Jun Da's Page on Chinese Text Processing] Copyright. 1998-2015. Any commercial use of the lists should have prior written permission from the author. |
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* [ftp://137.132.134.150/C/vv/richwin97-duoyuanpinyin-ci-ku-120300words/Wordlist.txt.zip Mainland Mandarin Vocabulary] FTP .zip '''license unknown''' |
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* [http://technology.chtsai.org/wordlist/dphphdb.zip Taiwan Mandarin Vocabulary] .zip '''license unknown''' |
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* [http://www.unicode.org/charts/unihan.html Unihan Database] All rights reserved |
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* CARAGIU-MARIOTEANU Matilda, “Definition einer Volksgruppe : Glotta und Ethnos der Aromunen” in Österreichische Osthefte, no 2 (Wien : 1971). P. 140-151. |
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* DAHMEN Wolfgang, KRAMER Johannes, “Enquête directe à l’aide d’enregistrement sur bandes magnétiques : expériences faites au cours d’enquêtes pour l’Atlas linguistique des parlers aroumains de la Grèce” in Archives sonores de dialectologie. Amiens : 1978. P. 55-63. |
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* GHEORGHEVIC-SPOA Risto, IOVANOVIC Zoran “Cântiti armânesti” Skopije : Societatea armâneasca Pitu Guli, 1982. |
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* GOLAB Zbigniev “Szic dialektu Arumunow macedonskich” in Zeszyty naukowa uniwersytetu Jagielonskiego-fil, Cracovia : 1961. P. 175-200. |
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* KAHL, Thede, Istoria aromânilor, Editura Tritonic, București, 2006 |
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* POGHIRC Cicerone. 1990 “Romanisation linguistique et culturelle dans les Balkans : survivances et évolution” in Les Aroumains, Paris : Publications Langues’O, 1989 (Cahiers du Centre d’étude des civilisations d’Europe centrale et du Sud-Est ; 8). P. 9-45. |
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* TRUDGILL P., “Ausbau sociolinguistics of Greece” in Plurilinguismes no 4 (june 1992). P. 167-191. |
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[[Category:Languages]] |
[[Category:Languages]] |
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[[Category:Romance languages]] |
Latest revision as of 03:28, 16 December 2015
Mandarin Chinese (Wikipedia:Mandarin Chinese) is a Sino-Tibetan language (Wikipedia:Sino-Tibetan languages). Although currently there is no stable language pair involving Mandarin Chinese (see list of language pairs), there is some linguistic data in Apertium.
'Chinese' is a broad term consisting of hundreds of local language varieties (dialects), including Hokkien, Gan, Hakka, Cantonese, etc. Mandarin Chinese in this case refers to the most commonly spoken form of Chinese that is the sole official language of China and Taiwan. It is also known as Putonghua or Standard Chinese (Wikipedia:Standard Chinese). Speakers of Chinese are estimated to be more than 1 billion (the highest total number of speakers in the world!).
In the Machine Translation context, one does not need to be too concerned with the various dialects, as their lexicon is mostly similar; differing mainly in phonology, tonal and spoken idiolects, and rarely, grammar usage. Furthermore, by specifying that Standard 'Putonghua' Chinese is the main focus of translation, any hassle with regard to Chinese dialects can be done away with entirely. However, what is significant about the Chinese language are the differences between "Traditional" and "Simplified" Chinese; the characters are different for 'Traditional' (used in Taiwan and Hong Kong) and 'Simplified' (used in Mainland China, Singapore, and Malaysia). Many online machine translators are able to convert between these characters easily.
In Apertium[edit]
Morphological transducer & disambiguator[edit]
Language pairs[edit]
Incubator
Resources[edit]
General[edit]
- Nordhoff, Sebastian; Hammarström, Harald; Forkel, Robert; Haspelmath, Martin, eds. (2013). "Mandarin Chinese". Glottolog. Leipzig: Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology.
- Norman, Jerry. (1988). Chinese, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-29653-3.
- Packard, Jerome Lee. (1998). New Approaches to Chinese Word Formation: Morphology, Phonology and the Lexicon in Modern and Ancient Chinese. New York: Mouton de Gruyter.
- Ramsey, S. Robert. (1987). The Languages of China, Princeton University Press, ISBN 978-0-691-01468-5.
- Wurm, Stephen Adolphe; Li, Rong; Baumann, Theo; Lee, Mei W. (1987). Language Atlas of China, Longman, ISBN 978-962-359-085-3.
- Yan, Margaret Mian. (2006). Introduction to Chinese Dialectology, LINCOM Europa, ISBN 978-3-89586-629-6.
- —— (1991). "What Is a Chinese "Dialect/Topolect"? Reflections on Some Key Sino-English Linguistic terms", Sino-Platonic Papers 29: 1–31.
- China WWW VL - Internet Guide for China Studies: Language
- Chinese Language Related Information Page Carlos McEvilly's extensive set of language and linguistics resources
- Chinese Linguistics Ohio State University
- Chinese Tools
- Scholarly and Linguistic Resources on Chinese
Machine translation[edit]
- A Collection of Chinese Corpora and Frequency Lists.
- Cambridge Advanced Learner's Dictionary, English-Chinese (traditional)
- CEDICT (Chinese-English Dictionary) Project
- Chinese Character Frequency Lists and Diagrams.
- China Education and Research Network (CERNET)
- Chinese Information Processing Laboratory
- Chinese Software Website N. Matloff
- Chinese Tools Annotator
- Libtabe (SourceForge)
- MDBG English to Chinese dictionary
- Multilingual Chinese Dictionary
- U. of Arizona Computer Aided Language Instruction (UACALI) Group
Grammars[edit]
- Chao, Yuen Ren. (1968). A Grammar of Spoken Chinese. Berkeley: University of California Press, ISBN: 0-520-00219-9. {ALEX PL1137.S6C5 1968}
- Claudia Ross and Jing-heng Sheng Ma. (2006). Modern Mandarin Chinese Grammar. New York: Routledge.
- He, Wayne W., Dela Jiao and Christopher M. Livaccari. (2010). Structures of Mandarin Chinese for Speakers of English I. Peking University Press, Paper. ISBN: 978-7-301-17971-0.
- Huang, C. -T. James, Y. -H. Audrey Li, and Yafei Li. (2009). The Syntax of Chinese. Cambridge University Press, ISBN: 0521590582.
- Kratochvil, P. The Chinese Language Today. {ALEX PL1087.K7}
- Li, Charles N. & Sandra A. Thompson. (1981). Mandarin Chinese: A Functional Reference Grammar. Berkeley: University of California Press, ISBN: 0-520-04286-7. {ALEX PL1107.L5}
- Li Dejin and Cheng Meizhen. (2009). A Practical Chinese Grammar for Foreigners. Revised Edition. Beijing Language and Culture University Press, Paper. ISBN: 978-7-561-92163-0.
- Lu, Fubo. (1996). 卢福波著. 《对外汉语教学实用语法》. Beijing Languages and Culture University Press, Paper. ISBN 978-7-5619-0474-9.
- Yip Po-Ching and Don Rimmington. (1997). Chinese: An Essential Grammar. New York: Routledge. {Paul Robeson (Camden) PL1107.Y57 1996}
- Yue, Anne O. (2003). Chinese dialects: grammar, in Thurgood, Graham; LaPolla, Randy J. (eds.), The Sino-Tibetan languages, Routledge, pp. 84–125, ISBN 978-0-7007-1129-1.
- ADVANCED CHINESE GRAMMAR
- Chinese Grammar Wiki All Set Learning
- Chinese Grammar (Wikipedia)
Morphology[edit]
- Dai, John Xiangling. (1992). Chinese morphology and its interface with the syntax. Doctoral dissertation, Ohio State University, Columbus.
- Duanmu, San. (1998). “Wordhood in Chinese”. New approaches to Chinese word formation: Morphology, phonology and the lexicon in modern and ancient Chinese.
- Feng, Shengli. (1998). Prosodic structure and compound words in classical Chinese. In New approaches to Chinese word formation: morphology, phonology and the lexicon in modern and ancient Chinese.
- Lu, Zhi-wei. (1965). Hànyǔ de goùcí fǎ (Chinese morphology). Peking: Kēxué Publishing Co.
- Matthews, Peter Hugoe. (1991). Morphology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
- Packard, Jerome Lee. (2000). The Morphology of Chinese: A Linguistic and Cognitive Approach. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
- Tang, Ting-chi. (1989). Hànyǔ cífǎ jùfǎ lùjí (Studies on Chinese morphology and syntax). Taipei: Taiwan Xīnxuéshēng Book Co.
- Zhu, Jia-ning. (1999). Hànyǔ cíhuì xué (Chinese morphology). Taipei: Wǔnán Túshū Publishing Co.
- Chinese Morphology: An Exploratory Study of Second Language Learners’ Acquisition of Compounds National Chengchi University, Taiwan
- Morphology Chinese 101 101 Languages
Dictionaries[edit]
- Monolingual
- 教育部重編國語辭典修訂本 (Dictionary of Mandarin from Ministry of Education, R.O.C.) All rights reserved
- 《全球华语词典》 (Global Chinese Dictionary) All rights reserved
- 漢典 (Handian Dictionary) All rights reserved
- Multilingual
- Lin, Y. (1972). Lin Yutang's Chinese-English Dictionary of Modern Usage, The Chinese University of Hong Kong.
- Simon, W. (1975). A Beginners' Chinese-English Dictionary Of The National Language (Gwoyeu): Fourth Revised Edition, Lund Humphries, (London).
- Cambridge Advanced Learner's Dictionary, English-Chinese (traditional) All rights reserved
- CEDICT (Chinese-English Dictionary) Project © 2015 MDBG
- Chinese-English Database © Marilyn Shea 1996, 1999, 2002, 2006
- English-Chinese Online Dictionary TigerNT license unknown
- MDBG English to Chinese dictionary © 2015 MDBG
- Multilingual Chinese Dictionary All Rights Reserved © 2005 - 2014
- Wordlists
- Mandarin Swadesh list (Wiktionary, Mandarin--English) CC-BY-SA
- Simple core word list COMMON ENTRANCE EXAMINATION at 11+ and 13+ MANDARIN CHINESE © Independent Schools Examinations Board
- The most frequently used words with pinyin and english definition. All Rights Reserved © 2005 - 2014
- Vocabularies for 150 languages (Flashcard learning) All rights reserved.
Miscellaneous[edit]
- Bradley, David. (1992). "Chinese as a pluricentric language". In Clyne, Michael G. Pluricentric Languages: Differing Norms in Different Nations. Walter de Gruyter. pp. 305–324. ISBN 978-3-11-012855-0.
- Chao, Yuen-ren. (1948). Mandarin Primer. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
- Chen, Ping. (1999). Modern Chinese: History and sociolinguistics, New York: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-64572-0.
- Chen, Yeh-ning, Shu-mei Wang, and Tsui-yin Lu. (2001). Practical Audio-Visual Chinese. Taipei: Zhèngzhūng Book Co.
- Coblin, W. South. (2000). "A brief history of Mandarin", Journal of the American Oriental Society 120 (4): 537–552, JSTOR 606615.
- Duanmu, San. (1999). Stress and the development of disyllabic vocabulary in Chinese. Diachronica XVI: 1.1-35.
- Duanmu, San. (2007). The phonology of standard Chinese (2nd ed.), Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-921579-9.
- Escure, Geneviève. (1997). Creole and dialect continua: standard acquisition processes in Belize and China (PRC), John Benjamins, ISBN 978-90-272-5240-1.
- Hsia, T. (1956). China's Language Reforms, Far Eastern Publications, Yale University, (New Haven).
- Kaske, Elisabeth. (2008). The politics of language in Chinese education, 1895–1919, BRILL, ISBN 978-90-04-16367-6.
- Kratochvil, Paul. (1968). The Chinese Language Today: Features of an Emerging Standard. London: Hutchinson.
- Kurpaska, Maria. (2010). Chinese Language(s): A Look Through the Prism of "The Great Dictionary of Modern Chinese Dialects", Walter de Gruyter, ISBN 978-3-11-021914-2.
- Lehmann, W.P. (ed.). (1975). Language & Linguistics in the People's Republic of China, University of Texas Press, (Austin).
- Milsky, C., (January–March 1973). "New Developments in Language Reform", The China Quarterly, No.53, pp. 98–133.
- Pollock, Jean-Yves. (1989). Verb movement, Universal Grammar, and the structure of IP. Linguistic Inquiry 20:365-424.
- Qiu, Xigui. (2000). Chinese Writing, trans. Gilbert Louis Mattos and Jerry Norman, Society for the Study of Early China and Institute of East Asian Studies, University of California, Berkeley, ISBN 978-1-55729-071-7.
- Schuessler, Axel. (2007). ABC Etymological Dictionary of Old Chinese, Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, ISBN 978-0-8248-2975-9.
- Selkirk, Elisabeth. (1982). The syntax of words. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press.
- Seybolt, P.J. & Chiang, G.K. (eds.). (1979). Language Reform in China: Documents and Commentary, M.E. Sharpe, (White Plains), ISBN 978-0-87332-081-8.
- Zhang, Bennan; Yang, Robin R. (2004). "Putonghua education and language policy in postcolonial Hong Kong", in Zhou, Minglang (ed.), Language policy in the People's Republic of China: theory and practice since 1949, Kluwer Academic Publishers, pp. 143–161, ISBN 978-1-4020-8038-8.
- 45th International Conference on Sino-Tibetan Languages and Linguistics (ICSTLL-45). Nanyang Technological University, Singapore.
- American Oriental Society
- Chinese Language and Gender On-line Bibliography
- Chinese Language website
- Classical Chinese texts Chinese Text Project
- East Asia and Southeast Asia: An Annotated Directory of Internet Resources.
- European Association of Chinese Linguistics
- International Association of Chinese Linguistics
- Journal of Chinese Linguistics
- Journal of the Chinese Language Teachers Association
- Language borrowing Why so little Chinese in English? The Economist. June 6, 2013.
- Mandarin Chinese children's story in simplified Chinese showing the stroke order for every character
- Marjorie Chan's ChinaLinks at the Ohio State University with hundreds of links to Chinese related web pages
- North American Conference on Chinese Linguistics
- Proceedings of the 20th North American Conference on Chinese Linguistics (NACCL-20).
- Sino-Tibetan Etymological Dictionary and Thesaurus (STEDT) Project
- The Authentic Way to Study Mandarin Chinese
- Standard Chinese (Wikipedia, English)
- 官話 (Wikipedia, Classical Chinese)
- 华语 (Wikipedia, Simplified Chinese)
- World Chinese Language Association
Corpora[edit]
- A Collection of Chinese Corpora and Frequency Lists. Use with permission.
- Chinese Community Information Center Corpora FTP .gz license unknown
- Chinese Community Information Center Phrases FTP .dat license unknown
- Chinese Database Copyright 1998-2003 by S. Starostin
- Chinese Information Processing Laboratory (Chinese) All rights reserved
- Chinese Wordlist license unknown
- Corpus linguistics Academia Sinica (Taiwan's top university) license unknown
- Jun Da's Page on Chinese Text Processing Copyright. 1998-2015. Any commercial use of the lists should have prior written permission from the author.
- Mainland Mandarin Vocabulary FTP .zip license unknown
- Taiwan Mandarin Vocabulary .zip license unknown
- Unihan Database All rights reserved